THE CONCEPT OF MILLENNIAL GENERATION VIRUS EDUCATION IN ALPHA GENERATION LITERACY

THE CONCEPT OF MILLENNIAL GENERATION VIRUS EDUCATION IN ALPHA GENERATION LITERACY

THE CONCEPT OF MILLENNIAL GENERATION VIRUS EDUCATION IN ALPHA GENERATION LITERACY
By

Natasya Diyanti Putri

English Education Program, State Islamic Institute of Parepare
natasyadiyantip@gmail.com
Abstract
Indonesia must be proud of being ranked 8th in the world’s largest book printer. But does Indonesian literacy have to be proud of its apathetic interest in reading as well? Indonesia has an area of 1.905 million km2 from Sabang to Merauke and Miangas Island to Rote Island with a population of 269 million people or 3.49% of the total world population which is now the majority occupied by millennials. The millennial generation virus is opening the way for the alpha generation in advancing the quality of education by combining the existence of literacy and having creativity in managing social dama so that it can recognize and understand the urgency of literacy for future educational civilizations. Indonesian youths are now free from illiteracy and therefore there is no reason to argue that young people or Indonesian millennials do not know to read. We are experts in terms of understanding? it is very necessary to plant the seeds of a virus that reads and understands what is triggered by the millennial generation so that the virus will not disappear and die so that it can be transmitted to the next generation, the alpha generation.

Keywords: Millennial Generation, Literacy and Alpha Generation
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Posted by: di January 07, 2021
Tags: Article, Paper
THE BEHAVIOR OF RURAL COMMUNITIES AGAINST THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND THE ROLE OF VILLAGE GOVERNMENTS

THE BEHAVIOR OF RURAL COMMUNITIES AGAINST THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND THE ROLE OF VILLAGE GOVERNMENTS

THE BEHAVIOR OF RURAL COMMUNITIES AGAINST THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND THE ROLE OF VILLAGE GOVERNMENTS
By

Syukron Fajriansyah

Faculty of Tarbiyah IAIN Parepare
syukron.fajriansyah98@gmail.com
Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) announced a pneumonia case that occurred in Wuhan China on December 31, 2019. Pneumonia cases occurred due to the latest virus called COVID-19 which means coronavirus disease 2019 (WHO, 2020). The first case occurred in Indonesia since the Indonesian Government announced that two Indonesian citizens (WNI) were declared positive for the 2019 coronavirus disease. Since the outbreak, the Indonesian Government has given appeals to the public to overcome this outbreak so that it runs effectively and efficiently. But in reality, there are still many Indonesians who do not heed this appeal. There are still many people who are indifferent to the government's appeal regarding this epidemic, especially rural communities that still do not have awareness of the dangers of this virus. Therefore this study aims to analyze why some rural communities bring up these behaviors and also the religious patterns of rural communities, and how to overcome them. The results show that the behavior displayed by people who do not comply with government calls is based on cognitive bias. In addition to analyzing the behavior of rural communities and how to handle them, this article also describes tips on the role of the village government in preventing the spread of Covid-19. The research method used by this research is a qualitative case study with a descriptive analysis approach.

Keywords: Pandemic, Covid-19, Rural Community, Cognitive Bias, the Role of Villages

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Posted by: di October 28, 2020
Tags: Article, Paper
Makalah Tentang Alih Kode dan Campur Kode

Makalah Tentang Alih Kode dan Campur Kode

PENDAHULUAN


A. Latar Belakang


Alih kode dan campur kode sering kali terjadi dalam berbagai percakapan masyarakat, alih kode dan campur kode juga dapat terjadi di semua lapisan masyarakat, status sosial seseorang tidak dapat mencegah terjadinya alih kode maupun campur kode atau sering disebut multi bahasa.

Masyarakat yang multi bahasa muncul karena masyarakat tutur tersebut mempunyai atau menguasai lebih dari satu bahasa yang berbeda-beda sehingga mereka dapat menggunakan pilihan bahasa tersebut dalam kegiatan berkomunikasi. Dalam kajian Sosiolinguistik, pilihan-pilihan bahasa tersebut kemudian dibahas karena hal ini merupakan aspek penting yang dikaji dalam suatu ilmu kebahasaan.

Oleh karena itu, maka hal itulah yang melatar belakangi kami untuk menulis dan menyusun makalah ini.

B. Rumusan Masalah


  1. Apa pengertian dari alih kode dan campur kode ?
  2. Apa penyebab terjadinya alih kode dan campur kode ?
  3. Apa sajakah jenis-jenis alih kode dan campur kode ?

C. Tujuan


  1. Untuk mengetahui pengertian dari alih kode dan campur kode.
  2. Untuk mengetahui penyebab dari terjadinya alih kode dan campur kode.
  3. Untuk mengetahui jenis-jenis dari alih kode dan campur kode.

PEMBAHASAN


A. Pengertian Alih Kode dan Campur Kode


1. Pengertian Alih Kode

Ohoiwutun (2007:71) mengatakan alih kode, yakni pemakaian dari suatu bahasa atau dialek ke bahasa atau dialek lainnya. Alih bahasa ini sepenuhnya terjadi karena perubahan-perubahan sosiokultural dalam situasi berbahasa. Perubahan-perubahan yang dimaksud meliputi faktor-faktor seperti hubungan antara pembicara dan pendengar, variasa bahasa, tujuan berbicara, topik yang dibahas, waktu dan tempat berbincang. Lebih lanjut Apple dalam Chaer(2004:107) mengatakan, alih kode yaitu gejala peralihan pemakaian bahasa karena berubahnya situasi.

Ditambahkan oleh Hymnes bahwa alih kode bukan hanya terbagi antar bahasa, tetapi dapat juga terjadi antar ragam-ragam atau gaya-gaya yang terdapat dalam satu bahasa. Sebagai contoh peristiwa peralihan yang terjadi dalam suatu kelas yang sedang mempelajari bahasa asing (sebagai contoh bahasa inggris). Di dalam kelas tersebut secara otomatis menggunakan dua bahasa yaitu, bahasa Indonesia dan bahasa Inggris. Kemudian terjadi percakapan dalam suatu bahasa nasional (contoh bahasa Indonesia) lalu tiba-tiba beralih ke bahasa daerah (contoh bahasa Bugis), maka kedua jenis peralihan ini juga disebut alih kode.

2. Pengertian Campur Kode

Kemudian gejala lain yaitu campur kode. Gejala alih kode biasanya diikuti dengan gejala campur kode, Thelander dalam Chaer (2004:115) mengatakan apabila didalam suatu peristiwa tutur terdapat klausa-klausa atau frase-frase yang digunakan terdiri dari klausa dan frase campuran (hybrid clauses, hybrid phrases), dan masing-masing klausa dan frase tidak lagi mendukung fungsi sendiri-sendiri, maka peristiwa yang terjadi ini adalah campur kode.

Kemudian Nababan (1991:32) mengatakan campur kode yaitu suatu keadaan berbahasa lain bilamana orang mencampur dua (atau lebih) bahasa atau ragam bahasa dalam suatu tindak bahasa tanpa ada sesuatu dalam situasi berbahasa yang menuntut percampuran bahasa itu. Maksudnya adalah keadaan yang tidak memaksa atau menuntut seseorang untuk mencampur bahasa ke dalam bahasa lain saat peristiwa tutur sedang berlangsung. Jadi penutur dapat dikatakan secara tidak sadar melakukan percampuran serpihan-serpihan bahasa ke dalam bahasa asli. Campur kode serupa dengan interfensi dari bahasa satu ke bahasa lain.

Dalam campur kode penutur menyelipkan unsur-unsur bahasa lain ketika sedang memakai bahasa tertentu. Unsur-unsur tersebut dapat berupa kata-kata, tetapi dapat juga berupa frase atau kelompok kata. Jika berwujud kata biasanya gejala itu disebut peminjaman. Hal yang menyulitkan timbul ketika memakai kata-kata pinjaman tetapi kata-kata pinjaman ini sudah tidak dirasakan sebagai kata asing melainkan dirasakan sebagai bahasa yang dipakai.

Sebagai contoh si A berbahasa Indonesia. namun ini tidak dapat dikatakan sebagai gejala campur kode atau pun alih kode. Hal ini disebabkan penutur jelas tidak menyadari kata-kata yang dipakai adalah kata-kata pinjaman, bahkan ia merasa semuanya merupakan bagian dari bahasa Indonesia karena proses peminjaman tersebut sudah terjadi sejak lama. Lebih lanjut Sumarsono (2004:202) menjelaskan kata-kata yang sudah mengalami proses adaptasi dalam suatu bahasa bukan lagi kata yang kata-kata yang mengalami gejala interfensi, bukan pula alih kode apalagi campur kode. Akan berbeda jika penutur secara tidak sadar atau sengaja menggunakan unsur bahasa lain ketika sedang berbicara dalam suatu bahasa.

Peristiwa inilah yang kemudian disebut dengan campur kode. Oleh karena itu dalam bahasa tulisan, biasanya unsur-unsur tersebut ditunjukkan dengan menggunakan garis bawah atau cetak miring sebagai penjelasan bahwa si penulis menggunakannya secara sadar.


B. Penyebab Terjadinya Alih Kode dan Campur Kode


1. Penyebab Terjadinya Alih Kode

Selain sikap kemultibahasaan yang dimiliki oleh masyarakat tutur, terdapat beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya peristiwa alih kode, seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Chaer (2004:108), yaitu :
  • Penutur
Perilaku Perilaku atau sikap penutur Yang dengan Sengaja beralih kode terhadap mitra tutur karena tujuan tertentu. Misalkan mengubah situasi jadi resmi atau tidak resmi dan sebaliknya .kemudahan ada juga penutur yang mengharapkan sesuatu dari mitra tuturnya atau dengan kata lain mengharapkan keuntungan atau manfaat dari percakpan yang dilakukannya, sebagai contoh, A adalah orang sumbawa B adalah orang batak keduanya sedang melakukan percakapan, mulanya si A berbicara menggunakan bahasa indonesia sebagai pembuka. Kemudian dianggapi oleh B dengan menggunakan bahasa indonesia juga , namun ketika si A ingin mengemukakan inti dari pembicaraanya maka ia kemudian beralih bahasa, yaitu dari bahasa indonesia kemudian beralih menggunakan bahasa batak, ketika si A menggunakan bahasa batak yang merupakan bahasa asli si B. Maka B pun merespon A dengan baik.

Maka disinilah letak keuntungan tersebut. A berbasa basi dengan menggunakan bahasa indonesia kemudian setelah dianggapi oleh B dan ia merasa percakapan berjalan lancar, maka si A dengan sengaja beralih menggunakan bahasa batak. Hal ini disebabkan si A ingin memulai pembicaraan yang lebih dalam kepada si B, selain itu inti pembicaraan tersebut dapat tersampaikan dengan baik, karena mudah di mengerti olwh lawan bicara yaitu B, peristiwa inilah yang menyebabkan terjadinya alih kode.
  • Lawan Tutur
Mitra tutur atau lawan tutur dapat menyebabkan peristiwa alih kode. Misanya si penutur ingin mengimbangi kemampuan bahasa lawan tuturnya, hal.ini biasanya kempuan bahas si lawan tutur kurang atau agak kurang karena mungkin karena bahasa tersebut bukan bahasa pertamanya . Jika lawan tutur yang latar belakang kebahasaanya sama dengan si penutur biasanya beralih kode dalam wujud alih varian (baik regional ataupun sosial), ragam, gaya, register. Kemudian bila.lawan tutur berlatar belakang kebahasaan berbeda cenderung alih kode berupa alih bahasa.

Sebagai contoh rani adalah seorang pramusaji di restoran. Kemudian dia kedatang tamu asing yang berasal dari jepang. Tamu tersebut ingin mempraktekkan bahasa indonesia yang telah ia pelajari. Pada awalnya percakapan berjalan lancar,namun ketika tamu tersebut menanyakan biaya maka ia tidak mengerti karena rani masih menjawab menggunankan bahasa indonesia. Melihat tamunya yang kebingungan tersebut, rani beralih bahasa dari bahasa indonesia ke bahasa jepang sampai tamunya benar mengerti dengan apa yang dikatakannya. Dari contoh diatas dapat disumpulkan bahwasannya terjadi peralihan bahasa atau disebut alih kode.
  • Hadirnya Penutur Ketiga
Kehadiran orang ketiga atau orang lain yang bukan berlatang belakang bahasa yang sama dengan bahasa yang sedang digunakan oleh penutur dan lawan tutur dapat menyebabkan peristiwa alih kode.untuk menetralisasi situasi dan menghormati kehadiran mitra tutur ketiga, biasanya penutur dan mitra tutur beralih kode, apalagi bila latar belakang kebahasaan mereka berbeda sebagai contoh tono dan tini bersaudara, mereka berdua dari sumbawa , oleh karena itu ketika berbicara mereka menguunakan bahasa sehari-hari yaitu bahasa sumbawa. Pembicaraan berjalan aman dan lancar , tiba-tiba datang upik kawan tini yang merupakan orang lombok. Untuk seaaat upik tidak mengerti dengan yang mereka katakan, kemudian tini memahami hal tersebut dan langsung beralih bahasa dengan menggunakan bahasa yang mudah dimengerti oleh upik yaitu bahasa indonesia kemudian ia bercerita tentang apa yang ia bicarakan dengan tono dengan menggunakan bahasa indonesia, inilah Yang disebut peristiwa alih kode. Jadi kehadiran orang ketiga merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi peristiwa alih kode.
  • Perubahan Situasi
Perubahan situasi pembicaraan juga dapat mempengaruhi terjadinya alih kode. Situasi tersebut dapat berupa situasi formal ke informal atau sebaliknya.
  • Topik Pembicaraan
Topik merupakan faktor yang dominan dalam menentukan terjadinya alih kode. Topik pembicaraan yang bersifat formal biasanya diungkapkan dengan ragam baku, dengan gaya netral dan serius dan pokok pembicaraan yang bersifat informal dapat disampaikan dengan bahasa nonbaku, gaya sedikit emosional dan serba seenaknya.

Menurut Widjajakusumah terjadinya alih kode dari bahasa daerah ke bahasa Indonesia adalah karena :
  1. Kehadiran orang ketiga
  2. Perpindahan topik dari nonteknis ke yang teknis
  3. Beralihnya suasana bicara
  4. Ingin dianggap terpelajar
  5. Ingin menjauhkan jarak
  6. Menghindarkan adanya bentuk kasar dan halus dalam bahasa Daerah
  7. Mengutip pembicaraan orang lain
  8. Terpengaruh lawan bicara yang beralih ke bahasa Indonesia
  9. Mitra berbicaraya lebih mudah
  10. Berada di tempat umum
  11. Menunjukkan bahasa pertamanya bukan bahasa daerah
  12. Beralih media.

Sedangkan penyebab alih kode dari bahasa Daerah ke bahasa Indonesia adalah karena :
  1. Perginya orang ketiga
  2. Topiknya beralih dari hal teknis ke hal nonteknis
  3. Suasana beralih dari resmi ke tidak resmi
  4. Merasa ganjil untuk tidak berbahasa daerah dengan orang sekampung
  5. Ingin mendekatkan jarak
  6. Ingin beradab-adab dengan menggunakan bahasa Daerah yang halus dan berakrab-akrab dengan bahasa Daerah yang kasar
  7. Mengutip dari peristiwa bicara yang lain
  8. Terpengaruh oleh lawan bicara
  9. Perginya generasi muda, mitra bicara lain yang lebih muda
  10. Merasa di rumah sendiri
  11. Ingin menunjukkan bahasa pertamanya adalah bahasa Daerah
  12. Beralih bicara biasa tanpa alat-alat seperti telepon.

2. Penyebab terjadinya campur kode

Sama halnya dengan alih kode, campur kodepun disebabkan oleh masyarakat tutur yang multilingual. Namun tidak seperti alih kode, campur kode tidak mempunyai maksud tujuan yang jelas untuk digunakan karena campur kode digunakan biasanya tidak disadari oleh pembicara atau dengan kata lain reflek pembicara atau pengetahuan bahasa asing yang diketahuinya. Setyaningsih mengatakan campur kode digunakan karena apabila seseorang yang sedang dalam kegiatan berkomunikasi tidak mendapatkan padanan kata yang cocok yang dapat menjelaskan maksud dan tujuan yang sebenarnya, maka ia akan mencari padanan kata yang cocok dengan jalan mengambil istilah dari berbagai bahasa yang ia kuasai.

Kemudian penyebab terjadinya campur kode dapat digolongkan menjadi dua yaitu sikap (attitudinal type) yakni latar belakang sikap penutur. Dan kebahasaan (linguistic type) yakni latar belakang keterbatasan bahasa, sehingga ada alasan identifikasi peranan, identifikasi ragam, dan keinginan untuk menjelaskan atau menafsirkan. Dengan demikian campur kode terjadi karena adanya hubungan timbal balik antara peranan penutur, bentuk bahasa dan fungsi bahasa.


C. Jenis-Jenis Alih Kode dan Campur Kode


1. Jenis-Jenis Alih Kode

  • Alih Kode Metaforis
Alih kode metaforis yaitu alih kode yang terjadi jika ada pergantian topik.
  • Alih Kode Situasuonal
Sedangkan alih kode situasional, yaitu alih kode yang terjadi berdasarkan situasi dimana para penutur menyadari bahwa mereka berbicara dalam bahasa tertentu dalam suatu situasi dan bahasa lain dalam situasi yang lain. Dalam alih kode ini tidak terjadi perubahan topik. Pergantian ini selalu bertepatan dengan perubahan dari suatu situasi eksternal (misalnya berbicara dengan anggota keluarga) ke situasi eksternal lainnya (misalnya berbicara dengan tetangga)

Selain alih kode metaforis dan situasional, suwito dalam chaer (2004 : 114) juga membagi alih kode menjadi dua jenis alih kode yaitu alih kode intern dan alih kode ekstern.
  • Alih Kode Intern
Alih kode Intern yaitu alih kode yang berlangsung antar bahasa sendiri, seperti dari bahasa Indonesia ke bahasa Sumbawa, atau sebaliknya.
  • Alih Kode Ekstern
Sedangkan alih kode ekstern yaitu campur kode yang terjadi antara bahasa Indonesia dengan bahasa asing. Contohnya bahasa Indonesia ke bahasa Jepang, atau sebaliknya.

2. Jenis-Jenis Campur Kode

Campur kode dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu campur kode ke luar (outer code-mixing) dan campur kode ke dalam (inner code-mixing).
  • Campur Kode Ke Luar (Outer Code-Mixing)
Yaitu campur kode yang berasal dari bahasa asing atau dapat dijelaskan bahasa asli yang bercampur dengan bahasa asing. Contohnya bahasa Indonesia – bahasa Inggris – bahasa Jepang, dll.
  • Campur Kode Ke Dalam (Inner Code-Mixing)
Yaitu campur kode yang bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya. Contohnya bahasa Indonesia – bahasa Sumbawa – bahasa Batak – bahasa Minang (lebih ke dialek), dll.


PENUTUP


A. Kesimpulan


Alih kode yakni peralihan pemakaian dari suatu bahasa atau dialek ke bahasa atau ke dialek lainnya. Alih kode juga bisa dikatakan sebagai gejala peralihan pemakaian bahasa karena berubahnya situasi. Hymes menyatakan bahwa alih kode bukan hanya terbagi antar bahasa, tetapi dapat juga terjadi antar ragam-ragam atau gaya-gaya yang terdapat dalam satu bahasa.

Kemudian gejala lain yaitu campur kode. Gejala alih kode biasanya diikuti dengan gejala campur kode, apabila di dalam suatu peristiwa tutur terdapat klausa-klausa atau frase-frase yang digunakan terdiri dari klausa dan frase campuran (hybrid clauses and hybrid phrases), dan masing-masing klausa dan frase tidak lagi mendukung fungsi sendiri-sendiri, maka peristiwa yang terjadi ini adalah campur kode. Kemudian ada juga yang mengatakan campur kode yaitu suatu keadaan berbahasa lain ialah bilamana orang mencampur dua (atau lebih) bahasa atau ragam bahasa dalam suatu tindak bahasa tanpa ada sesuatu dalam situasi berbahasa yang menuntut percampuran bahasa itu sendiri.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA


Chaer, Abdul dan Leonie Agustina. 2010. Sosiolinguistik Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.
Farizan. 2015. Makalah Alih Kode dan Campur Kode. Surabaya : Magister Pendidikan Bahasa sIndonesia Universitas DR. Soetomo. Read more »
Posted by: di February 13, 2020
Tags: Paper
Makalah Tentang VERB (DefInition, Types, Function and Position)

Makalah Tentang VERB (DefInition, Types, Function and Position)

PENDAHULUAN


A. Latar Belakang

Bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa Internasional yang digunakan sebagai alat komunikasi dan dipelajari semua Negara di dunia. Dalam mempelajari Bahasa Inggris terdapat part of speech yang dimana membahas tentang pembagian kata yaitu Noun, Verb, Adveb, Adjective, Pronoun, conjuction, dan interjection.

Sama seperti Bahasa Indonesia, Dalam Bahasa Inggris pun mengenal yang namanya kata kerja atau verb. Verb merupakan tata bahasa yang paling komplek dalam Bahasa Inggris karena akan berubah sesuai dengan waktu dan subjek yang digunakan.

Verb merupakan bagian terpenting dalam penulisan kalimat karena verb adalah syarat terpenting dalam penulisan kalimat yang berposisi sebagai predikat. Sehingga, mempelajari verb dan jenis-jenis verb membantu dalam penulisan kalimat.

B. Rumusan Masalah

  1. Pengertian Verb
  2. Types of Verb
  3. Function of Verb
  4. Position of Verb

C. Tujuan Penulisan

Tujuan penulisan makalah ini adalah untuk membantu pembaca memahami dan mengetahui mengenai verb, pembagian verb, fungsi verb, dan posisi verb dalam kalimat.


PEMBAHASAN


A. Verbs

The verb is the most complex part of speech. Its varying arrangements with nouns determine the different kinds of sentences statements, questions, commands, exclamations.

B. Types of Verbs

The types of verbs described here differ according to the kind of complement they may have. Because these types may cut across each other, a verb may belong to more than one type.

1. Predicating or Linking verbs

A predicating verb is the chief word in the predicate that says something about the subject. The predicating word (or predicator) has traditionally been called a verb of “action” (she wrote a letter), but has actually been interpreted to include most non-action verbs that are not linking verbs (for example, I remember him).

A linking verb is a verb of incomplete predecation. The important word in the complement is usually an adjective (The girl is pretty) or a noun (She is a pretty girl). The – ly adverbs of manner (quickly, angrily) are not used with linking verbs. The more common linking verbs are appear, be, become, get, look, remain, seem, grow, sound, stand, turn, and feel.

Example : 
The rose smells sweet
My sister looks pale

2. Transitive or Intrasitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object (He is reading a book); an intrasitive verb does not require an object (He is walking in the park). Only transitive verbs may be used in the passive voice (The book was returned by him quickly). All linking verbs are intransitive ( The sun rises in the east).

3. Reflexive verbs

A Reflexive verb requires one of the compounds with self(reflexive pronuon) as its object. Some verbs may be used with or without the reflexive pronoun object (He washed (himself) and dressed (himself) quickly). Reflexive verbs often have a non reflexive use also, and can take objects that objects that do not refer back to the subject (She washed the child and the dressed him quickly).

4. Auxiliary or Lexical Verbs

Two or more words may be joined together into a single verb phrase that functions as the full verb of the predicate. The first part of the verb phrase is the auxiliray, and the second part is the lexical verb.

The classification of auxillary verb :

a. Primary

To be : am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being.
To do : do, does, did.
To have : have, has, had

b. Modal

Must, will, can, may, could, would, shall, should, might, ought to.
Sebagian besar auxiliary verb harus digunakan dengan lexical verb/ kata utama.

Example : 
Dinda can play the computer today.
They have to do their homework now.

5. Finite or Non-Finite verbs

A finite verb is a lexical verb with or without auxiliaries that acts as the full verb in the predicate. It is limited by all the grammatical properties a verb may have person, number, tense, voice, etc.

Example : 
Dinda writes a letter every week for her mom.
Rika wrote a letter yesterday.

Non-finite (or finite) verbs are incomplete verbs forms that function as other parts of speech than verbs. They consist of the infinitive forms ( to + the simple form of the verb) and the participial –ing or ed forms.

Example : 
He likes to listen music.
My sister likes cooking.
The boy talking to his father is my brother.
They have planned the meeting.

6. Irregular Verbs

A small number of verb, among them some of the most commonly used verb in the language, have forms that differ from the regular tense form shown in the paradigms, we have given earlier. In the order to use the tense form of this irregular verb, the speaker of English must know their “principal parts.” The first principal parts of a verb is the simple form of the verb, the second principal part is the past tense, the third principal part is the past participle. Thus, the principal parts for the regular verb offer are offer, offered, offered, (offering).

7. Regular Verbs

Regular verb is the change of verb be based on tenses that happen contentious of the sentences with increasing –d, -ed or –ied in the end of word.
  • wait = waited
  • paint = painted
  • knock = knocked

Adding inflectional suffixes
 
  • -s 
1. after a sibilant sound spelled as s,z,ch,sh,x.es is added (passes, buzzes, catches, pushes, mixes)
2. after y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i  and es is added (carries, tries, but plays).

  • -ed 
1. after y preceded by a consonant, they is change to i and ed is added (carried,tried, but played).
2. after a single consonant preceded by a single stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled before ed (stopped, permitted, but offered rained).
3. after final e, only d is added (changed, argued, agreed).

  • -ing 
1. final sileent omitted (changing, arguing, but agreeing).note : the e is retained if it is needed by a vowel (canoeing).
2. After a single consonant preceded by a single stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled before ing (stopping, permitting, but offering, raining)
3. final ie in one-syllable word is changed to y (lying, dying, tying).

C. Function of verb

Fungsi dari kata kerja dalam sebuah kalimat adalah menjelaskan keadaan dari sebuah subjek. Kata kerja (verb) dapat menjadi sebuah pokok dari grammar yang memiliki fungsi :

1. Penghubung dari subjek

Example : I am a doctor.
He is a teacher.

2. Menjelaskan inti kalimat

Example : They go to Bali every year.
He is going to the beach.

D. Position of Verbs

The verb is used after a subject, or before an subject or complement. The verb appears before the subject in most question, and in sentences or clauses that begin with certain types of negative adverbs.

PENUTUP


A. Conclusion


The verb is the most complex part of speech. Its varying arrangements with nouns determine the different kinds of sentences statements, questions, commands, exclamations.

Types of Verbs : Predicating or Linking Verbs, Transitive or Intrasitive verbs, Reflexive Verbs, Auxiliary or Lexical Verb, Finite or Non-Finite Verb, Irregular Verb and Regular Verb.

The Function of verb are the link of subject and to explain the core of sentences. The position of verb is used after a subject, or before an subject or complement.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA


Frank, Marcell.1972. Modern English. New Jersey US: Prentice-Hall INC.
Indriani, Irma. 2014. Lengkap  dan Praktis Grammar Itu Gampang. Cek; 1. Jakarta: Dunia Cerdas.
 Read more »
Posted by: di February 10, 2020
Tags: Paper
Sociolinguistics (Language And Social Class)

Sociolinguistics (Language And Social Class)

INTRODUCTION


A. Background


The relationship between language and social class has been a major concern in applied linguistics and in sociolinguistics (see Block 2013 for a review), in the ethnography of communication (Hymes 1996), in language attitudes research (e.g. Chakrania and Huang 2012, Huygens and Vaughan 1983, Lai 2010), in research on public debates about language (e.g. Bex and Watts 1999, Crowley 1989, Mugglestone 2003), and in education (see Collins 2009 for a review).

It would be impossible to do justice to this range of research within a single article. Instead, this article follows one particular narrative in the development of class analysis within sociolinguistics. Focusing on language variation, it charts the progression from early survey studies, which assumed that class hierarchies determine linguistic behaviour, to more recent approaches, which emphasise social practice and speaker agency.

This narrative is relevant to scholars interested in pragmatics because it demonstrates that an adequate sociolinguistic theory of language and social class has to engage with language in use, and thus with ‘a pragmatic perspective’ (Verschueren 1994, 2009).

B. Problem Statement


Based on the background above, the research questions as follow:
  1. What is the definition of Language?
  2. What is Social Class

C. Purpose


The objectives of this research based on research problem above are:
  1. To know the definition of Language
  2. To understand the definition Social Class

DISCUSSION


A. The Definition Language


Language is central to social interaction in every society, regardless of location and time period. Ferdinand de Saussure explain that language is a system, sign and also sound which is used for a group in a community with the aim to do interaction or communication as a social human.

Language is not uniform or constant. Rather, it is varied and inconsistent for both the individual user and within and among groups of speakers who use the same language. People adjust the way they talk to their social situation. Language is also arbitrary and conventional. An individual, for instance, will speak differently to a child than he or she will to their.

This socio-situational variation is sometimes called register and depends not only on the occasion and relationship between the participants, but also on the participants’ region, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, and gender.One way that sociolinguists study language is through dated written records.

They examine both hand-written and printed documents to identify how language and society have interacted in the past. This is often referred to as historical sociolinguistics the study of the relationship between changes in society and changes in language over time.

B. The Definition of Social Class


Social class is a central concept in sociolinguistic research, one of the small number of social variables by which speech communities are stratified. Social class involves grouping people together and according them status within society according to the groups they belong to.

Trudgill states that “most members of our society have some kind of idea, intuitive or otherwise, of what social class is,” and most people, both specialists and laypeople, would probably agree with this. It is ironic, then, that social class is often defined in an ad hoc way in studies of linguistic variation and change, and linguists do not frequently take advantage of the findings of disciplines that make it their business to examine social class, particularly sociology, to inform their work.

Still, social class is uniformly included as a variable in sociolinguistic studies, and individuals are placed in a social hierarchy despite the lack of a consensus as to what concrete, quantifiable independent variables contribute to determining social class. To add to the irony, not only is social class uniformly included as an important variable in studies of linguistic variation, but it regularly produces valuable insights into the nature of linguistic variation and change.

Thus, this variable is universally used and extremely productive, although linguists can lay little claim to understanding it. Most sociological definitions include the notion of the “life-chances” of an individual or a class, as does, for example, Michael (1962)the basis of Labov's (1966)study of the Lower East Side of New York City. Here social class is defined as “an individual's life chances stated in terms of his relation to the production and acquisition of goods and services.”

Examples Class Structure(social class) in US:
  • Two upper classes ; Upper upper : Old money, Lower upper : New money
  • Three middle classes ;Upper middle : Professional, Middle class : White collar and entrepreneurs, Working class : Blue collar
  • Two lower classes ;Upper lower : Unskilled laborers, Lower lower : Socially and economically disadvantaged.

C. Language and Social Class


There is a particular interest in the socialization process, namely how a person obtains a specific cultural identity and how he responds to that identity. Language has a relationship with culture in a society. In addition language also determines the way language speakers perceive Bernstein's world (in Ronald, 1987). The language experience of speakers that will relatively affect their lives. The variety of languages ​​used by language speakers in communicating is caused by their fellow members or with other members.

As social beings, humans will never be able to live alone. He definitely needs someone else for the sake of his survival. Humans use language as a communication tool in interacting with others. Language is also a group identity that has certain characteristics that cause it to be different from other group languages.

Sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics that studies the phenomenon of society. Fisman states that sociolinguistics has the main component of language characteristics and functions. The intended function of language is social function (regulatory) as a form of direction and interpersonal function, namely maintaining good relations. As for imaginative functions to explore fantasy realms. In addition there are also emotional functions to express mood (anger, disappointment, appreciation, sadness, joy, etc.).

Social class differs from caste, although caste can be referred to as an example of social class in society. The difference is only in terms of the nature of openness, where we know social class is open while caste is closed. Social classes allow someone who is at the level of the working class if he works diligently one day can move social class into the upper level. Unlike the case if a person is in the caste level, if he was born in the Brahmin caste, it would be impossible for him to become the class of the Sudra caste or Vaishya (Sumarsono, 2000: 43).


CLOSING


A. Conclusion


Language is central to social interaction in every society, regardless of location and time period. Ferdinand de Saussure explain that language is a system, sign and also sound which is used for a group in a community with the aim to do interaction or communication as a social human. Language is not uniform or constant. Rather, it is varied and inconsistent for both the individual user and within and among groups of speakers who use the same language.

Social class is a central concept in sociolinguistic research, one of the small number of social variables by which speech communities are stratified. Social class involves grouping people together and according them status within society according to the groups.


References


Wolfram, Walt dan Natalie Schilling-Estes. 1998 American English. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Read more »
Posted by: di February 02, 2020
Tags: Paper, Sociolinguistics
Sentence VS Clause

Sentence VS Clause

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

In this life, Communication is an important things in human’s life. Every time and eveywhere people do it to get their needs. They use language as the main tool of this process. In this era, the language that we usually use is English language. English is one of the popular language in this era and English has some of pattern to construct it word, phrase, clause and sentence.

There are millions words now used by people. Everytime people get more and more new words unless they know the way it happens. Only some of us that can understand about syntax, so in this paper my group will discuss the about sentence and clause, so we can understand a little bit about sentence and clause.

B. Problem Statement

Based on the background above, the research questions as follow:
  1. What is the definition of sentence?
  2. What is the types of sentence?
  3. What is the definition of clause?
  4. What is the types of clause?
  5. What is the different between sentence and clause?

C. Purpose

The objectives of this research based on research problem above are:
  1. To know the definition of sentence and their types.
  2. To understand the definition of clause and their types.
  3. To understand the different between sentence and clause.

DISCUSSION

A. The Definition of Sentence

Sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and verb which has a complete meaning and it ends with end mark. Example: She finds a pen in the class.

B. Kinds of Sentence


1. Based on its ordinary
  • Verbal → The ordinary sentence verb is pure (not using “be”)
Example: I study English
  • Nominal → The ordinary sentence verb is using “be”
Example: She is my cousin

2. Based on its form
  • Statement
a. Positive → Example: My father gives me money
b. Negative → Example: My father doesn’t give me money
  • Question
a. Yes/No Question → Example: Does my father give my money?
b. Informative → Example: Who gives you money?
c. Imperative → Example: Listen to me
d. Exclamatory → Example: How cold it is!

3. Based on its structure
  • Simple sentence is a sentence that only contain a single main clause. Example: Jimmy buys a book.
  • Compound sentence is a sentence that contain two or more main clause by using the compound conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet) to combine the main clause. Example: He is poor, but he is honest.
  • Complex sentence is a sentence that contain only one main clause and one or more subordinate clause by using the complex conjunction to combine the clause. For example: I know that she is a smart student.
  • Compound-complex sentence is a sentence that contain at least two main clause and at least one subordinate clause. For example: When I grow up, I want to be a lecture and my mother will proud fo me.

C. The Definition of Clause

Clause is a group of words that contai a subject or predicate. Predicate here can be a verb. Either in the form of an adjective, noun, or other and clause is the smallest grammatical unit that expresses a single thought. For example: I eat

D. Kinds of Clause

Main clause/independent clause is a clause that has a complete meaning and can stand alone like a sentence. For example: She won’t come.

Subordinate clause/dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone. For example: unless you invite her.

E. Kinds of Subordinate Clause/Dependent Clause

1. Adjective clause also known as a relative clause is a sub clause that modify the noun (head). For example: The man who is standing at the door is my brother. Generally, there are two types of adjective clause:
  • Relative pronoun
Relative pronoun a subject is a sub clause that the conjunction (who, which, that) replace position of the subject. For example:First sentence: The man is my close friend
Second sentence : He helped you yesterday
The man who helped you yesterday is my close friend.

Relative pronoun as a object is a sub clause that the conjunction (who, whom, which, that) replace the position of object. For example:
First sentence : The dog was dead
Second sentence : I kick it yesterday
The dog that I kick yesterday was dead.

Relative pronoun as a possesive is a sub clause that the conjunction (whose, noun of which)replace the position of possessive. For Example:
Fisrt sentence : The film is about a spy
Second sentence : His wife betrays him
The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him

  • Relative Adverb
Relative adverb of place is a sub clause that the conjunction (where,that, in/on/at which) replace the position noun of place or preposition. For example:
First place : The small town has grown to a large metropolis
Second place : I was born there
The small town where I was born has grown to a large metropolis

Relative adverb of time is a sub clause that the conjunction (when,that, in/on/at which) replace the position noun of time. For example:
First sentence : I’ll never forget the day
Second sentence : I met you
I’ll never forget the day when I met you

Relative adverb of reason is a sub clause that the conjunction(why,that, for which) replace the position noun of time. For example: The reason why Sam love Ijah is unbelievable.

2. Noun clause is a sub clause that function as a noun. Usually, noun clause was used for answer the question “What”. Generally, there are five types of noun clause:
  • As subject of verb
Question: What made her friends cry?
Answer: what Alicia said
What Alicia said made her friends cry
  • As object of verb
Question: What didn’t he know?
Answer: why the stove wasn’t working.
He didn’t know why the stove was’t working
  • As subject complement
Question: What was Darla’s excuse for being late?
Answer: It was that she forgot to set her alarm
Darla’s excuse for being late was that she forgot to set her alarm
  • As object of preposition
Question: Allie is the owner of what
Answer: That blue car parked outside
Allie is the owner of that blue car parked outside
  • Adjective complement → to modify verb, adjective, or adverb
Question: why is the child sad?
Answer: His stomach hurts
The child is sad that his stomach hurts

3. Adverbial clause is a sub clause that function as adverb to modify the verb, adjective and another adverb. For example: If she was a nice girl, my mother will like her. There are ten types of adverbial clause:
  • Adverbial clause of time is a sub clause that say something happens by reffering to a period or point of time, or to another event. For example: Her goldfish was died when she was young.
  • Adverbial clause of place is a sub clause that talk about the location or position of something. For example: She lives where her parents used to live.
  • Adverbial clause of contrast is a clause that make two statement but both of the caluse make a contrast statement. For example: I used to read a lot although I dont get much time for books now.
  • Adverbial clause of reason is a clause that indicate the reason for something. For example: I couldn’t feel anger againts him because I liked him too much.
  • Adverbial clause of result is a clause that indicate the result of an act or event. For example: He spoke so fast that nobody could understand
  • Adverbial clause of purpose is a clause that indicate the purpose of an action. For example: They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
  • Adverbial clause of condition is a clause that talk about a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. For example: If it doesn’t rain, we will go to the beach tomorrow
  • Adverbial clause of exception is a clause that state an exception. For example: the car is all right, except that the heater doesn’t work.
  • Adverbial clause of manner is a clause that talk about someone’s behaviour or the way something is done. For example: I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them.
  • Adverbial clause of comparison is a clause that state compare a skill, size, or amount, etc. For example: Johan can speak English as fluently as his teacher

CLOSING


A. Conclusion

Based on the discussion, we can conclude that sentence is a clause but we can’t conclude that all of the clause is a sentence because if we said that all of the clause is a sentence, it will contrast with the definition of sentence that state sentence is a group word that have a complete meaning meanwhile dependent clause/subordinate clause is a clause that has an uncomplete meaning.

By discussing and learning about the sentence and clause make my group more understand about the real function of sentence and clause although there are some similarity both of them, it can make us easier to understand how to combine a word to another word become a great sentence

B. Suggestion

Based on this paper, it so crucial to looking for any more references. The language cannot be understand by one reference. Then, when we discussing about the sentence, it takes a lot of understanable sources to be effective.

BIBLIOGRAPHY


Sam Abdullah Mutaqin. 2013. Planet Grammar. Kresna English Language Institute
Suherman. 2013. Top Grammar. RD. Aas Rukasa
Ehrlich Eugene. Schaum’s Outlines English Grammar. Erlangga, Jakarta: 2004.
Juanda Suryadi. Complete English Grammar Belajar Bahasa Inggris Dari Awal Sampai Mahir. Pustaka Pelajar. Yogyakarta: 2011.
Schrampfer Azar Betty, Understanding and Using English Grammar, Binarupa Aksara, Jakarta: 1993. Read more »
Posted by: di February 02, 2020
Tags: Clause, Paper, Sentence
Concept of Morphology (Word, Word Form, and Lexeme)

Concept of Morphology (Word, Word Form, and Lexeme)

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

What makes humans different from every other species on the planet? Answers vary from our use of tools, out creation of a society, or our advanced technological development. However, one essential factor underlies all the rest: the ability to communicate.

Humans are the only species that have a language. Sure, animals do communicate: Dolphins click messages through the water, wolves howl in packs, and deer flick their tails to warn of danger, and some apes can even learn sign language. However, none of these examples are even close to the advanced verbal communication found in humans.

This bring us to linguistics, or the study of language and its structure. Many scientist have devoted their lives to understanding how language developed, how it’s currently changing, and what it might becone in the future. There are many aspects of language to study, but in our assignment, we wil focus on morphology especially the meaning morphology, word, word form and lexeme.

B. Problem Statement

Based on the background above, the research question as follow :

  • What is the meaning of morphology and the example ?
  • What is word and the example ?
  • What is word form and the example ?
  • What is lexeme and the example ?

C. Purpose

The objectives of this research based on research problem above are:

  • To know what is the meaning of morphology and the example of morphology
  • To understand what is word and to know the example
  • To know what is word form and the example
  • To understand what is lexeme and to know the example of lexeme


DISCUSSION

A. History of Morphology

Before nineteenth century, morphology did not emerge as a distinct sub-branch of linguistic. But now, morphology is a distinct sub-branch of linguistic.

In 1786, Sir William Jones claimed that Sanskrit Latin, Persian, and Germanic languages were descended from a common ancestor. In 1816, Franz Boop supporting Sir Jones finding his evidence was based on comparisonof the grammatical endings of words in these language.
In 1889, under the influence of Darwinian Theory of evolution, Mark Muller delivered his lectures in Oxford that the study of the evolution of words illuminated the evolution of language just as in biology morphology. His specific claim was that the study of the 400-500 basic roots of the Indo-European ancestors of many of the languages of Europe and Asia was the key to understanding the origin of human language.

In 1993, Katamba argues that such evolutionary pretensions were abandoned vvery early in the history of morphology. He said that in this country, morphology is regarded as an essential sycrhroic discipline, which is a discipline focusing on the study of word structure at one stage in the life of a language rather on the evolution of words.

Linguistic analyses also proposed a separation of levels in linguistic :

  • Semantic level (dealing with meaning)
  • Syntactic level (dealing with sentence-structure)
  • Morphological level (dealing with word-structure)
  • Phonology/phonemics (dealing with sound system)

The analyst producing a description of a language was seen as one of working out, in separate stages. The levels were assumed to be ordered in a hierarchy. But, in 2002, Hanafi added pragmatics to the separation of linguistics levels, because language use cannot be described

  • Pragmatic level (dealing with language in use)
  • Semantic level (dealing with meaning)
  • Syntactic level (dealing with sentence-structure)
  • Morphological level (dealing with word-structure)
  • Phonological/phonemics (dealing with sound system)

B. The Meaning of Morphology

The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morpho- meaning ‘shape, form’, and –ology which means ‘the study of something’. We are going to stick to morphology in linguistic, as the scientic study of form and structure of words in a language. Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics was named for the first time in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher who used the term for the study of the form of words. Today mophology forms a part of linguistics and there are so many definitions of morphology that have been introduced by linguistics such as :

  • Crystal (1980:232-242)
Morphology is a branch of grammar that studies the structure or the form of words, particularly through the use morpheme.
  • Bauer (1983:33)
Morphology studies the internal structure of word form.
  • Dobrovolsky (1989:89-99)
Morphology is a component of generative transformational grammar which studies the internal structure of words, especially complex words
  • Verhaar (1996:97)
Morphology is the branch of linguistics that identifies the basic units of language as grammatical units.
  • Nida (1974:1)
Morphology is a study of mopheme and morpheme preparation for the creation of the word
  • Katamba (1997:30)
Morphology is the study of the formation and internal organization of word.

This is the understanding of morphology according to experts, general mophology is the study of the structure and form of words in language or a language, including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds. In generally, morphology is divided into two field : the study of inflection and the study of word formation.

When we study about inflection, its mean that we study about the various form of lexeme meanwhile when we study about word formation, its mean that we study about a new lexeme from certain bases. Not only that, the word formation divided into derivation and compounding

C. Word, Word Form, and Lexeme

1. Word

Word is the important thing in language. Everyone knows that language as communication used by society. Word can be defined as a sound or a combination of sound that representation in writing symbolizes a meanin.

  • Crystal (1980:283-285)
Word is an uttarance unit which has a universl intuitive recognition by native speaker, either in spoken language or in written language
  • Leonard Bloomfield
Word as a free minimum form, that is, the smallest unit which forms a complete utterance
  • Oxford
Word is written or spoken unit of language, or thing that you say, remark or statement
  • Dobrovolsky (1989:91)
Word is the smallest free form, that is an element that can occur independently in various position in sentence
  • Srijono (2010:49)
Word are the smallest free form found in language

The statement of Srijono about the definition, we can conclude that the words can be stood by itself. For example word: boy, girl, cook, etc. All of this word cannot be divide into smaller unit that can convey meaning when they stand alone.

Futhermore, from the  point of view its form, there are two kinds of word  in human language, such as simple word and complex word. Simple words are words that cannot be analysed into smaller meaningful units, while complex words are words that can be analyzed into constituent parts indicating a recognizable meaning.

It’s not easy to define word, because word is a minimal free form, which can occur in isolation and have meaning but which cannot be analysed into elements which can all occur alone and also have meaning. Another difficulties when treating word is the term word itself, word cannot be separated from word form and lexeme.

2. Word formation

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word is sometime  contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word’s meaning. Word formation process is a way of forming new words or term from the use of old words. There are several way word formation processes:

  • Coinage/invention
  • Borrowing
  • Compounding
  • Blending
  • Clipping/truncation
  • Backformation
  • Conversion
  • Acronyms
  • Derivation
  • Echoism/symbolism/onomatopoeia
  • Folk etymology
  • Reduplication
  • Multiple processes.

There are numerous word formation processes that do not arose any controversies and are very similar in the majority of language in changing or making a new word.

3. Lexeme

In linguistics, a lexeme is the fundamental unit of the lexicon (or word stock) of a language. Also known as a lexical unit, lexical item, or lexical word.

A lexeme is the smallest or minimal unit of lexicon in a language that bears some “meaning”. A lexeme has a morphological form, semantic content (or meaning) and a syntactic category. Lexeme is basically an abstract notion used in linguistic morphology, the concrete realisation of which is a word.

Acccording to Kridalaksana (1982:98) lexeme is an abstract lexical unit underlying various inflected forms of a words. One lexeme can take up more than one inflection to form a set of many words known as inflected variants. For examples, the lexeme PLAY can take up many forms like play, playing, plays, and played. All of these word forms have the same basic meaning (which is denoted by action) and, hence, will be categorised under the same lexeme.

As a coclusion the lexem is abstract, its conventional to choose one of the inflected forms to represent it, such as infinitive of the verb or the singular of the noun.

The same word form may in fact represented different lexemes, such as:

  • Homonym, is a sigle orthographic and phonological word standing for two lexemes, as bear is either the verb or the noun
  • Homograph, is a single orthographic word (but separate phonological words) standing for two lexemes, aslead is either the noun /led/ or the verb /li;d/
  • Homophone, is a dingle phonological eord (but separate orthoghraphical words) standing for two lexemes, as /mi:t/ can be a noun meat or the verb meet.


CLOSING

A. Conclusion

When we study about morphology, its mean that we are studying about the structure and form of words in language or a language, including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds. Its very important to study about the mrphology, because we can know how the word/morpheme change into a several word that have different meaning according to the context.

Morphology makes us know about the relation between the word, word formation, lexeme and etc.

B. Suggestion

Based on this paper, its hard to explain the meaning of mophology, word, word form and lexeme because our lack in vocabulary force us to type the context of statement that we get and we dont know how to understand the meaning, because of the reason, our group realize that we have to get many reference from book and the lecture.



BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kalsum, M.Pd.
New York Oxford.2008.Oxford learner’s pocket and dictionary. Oxfor University Press.
http://www.ilmubahasainggris.com
Packer.2001.morphology paper.Handout for psy 598-02.
Akmajian, A.et.al.2001.Linguistics.Cambridge:MIT Press.
Aronoff, fudeman.morphology and morphological analysis.Blackwell Publishing.
Laurier Bauer. 1983. English Word Formation. Cambridge University.
Abdul Haris Sunubi. 2016. Introduction To Linguistic. dirah Read more »
Posted by: di January 23, 2020
Tags: Morphology, Paper
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